The Influence of Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Magianism on Islam
The Influences
Many elements were taken by Muhammad from the Persian religions, and these are considered fundamental aspects upon which Muhammad built his doctrine.
The Paraclete
Muhammad claimed about himself that he was the one foretold by Jesus. This is a statement previously repeated by the followers of Mani. It was a cry issued by Manichaean jurisprudence in defense of Mani, imposing upon followers the recognition of him. To reinforce this recognition, it was even added to their prayers—so when a follower prostrates, it is only to conclude his prayer with greetings and peace upon this prophet, saying: “Blessed is our guide, the Paraclete, the Messenger of Light” (a theme also explored in the Islamic concept of Allah’s Light). (33)
It is narrated about Zoroaster… The people of his religion frequently recount the miracles, extraordinary events, and signs that accompanied his birth; that from his childhood he devoted himself to contemplation and inclined toward solitude; that during this time he saw seven visions; then he announced his mission, declaring that he was God’s messenger sent to remove the errors that had attached themselves to religion and to guide to the truth. He continued calling people to the truth for many years, but only a few responded. It was then revealed to him to migrate to Balkh…” (34)
In the book Religion in India, China, and Iran, the author discusses Zoroaster’s early mission, quoting from the Avesta: “Regarding this prophethood, mission, and revealed revelation “gatha” emerges—a jurisprudential discourse in which the prophet-messenger speaks: From the stages of maturity, from childhood to youth, and even beyond the stages of youth… Zoroaster devoted himself to contemplation and solitude… searching for truth, he traversed the folds of the desert in devotion… secluded in a cave on Mount Sabalan, where the first signs of his prophethood and mission began around the age of forty—with visions… then speech… then the ascent (mi’raj) to heaven (a journey involving celestial beings like angels)!” (35)
In Firas al-Sawah’s study on Zoroaster… after receiving the message, Zoroaster set out preaching it in his homeland among his people for ten years, but he could not win many to the new religion. Ordinary people regarded him with doubt and suspicion because of his claim to prophethood and receiving heavenly revelation (some of which included bizarre demonic encounters), while the nobles opposed him because he threatened them with the punishment of the Hereafter (a concept with vivid descriptions in Islam, where it is even said that Hell speaks to Allah) and promised the humble the possibility of immortality, which in traditional belief had been reserved for the elite. When the prophet despaired of his people and kin, he resolved to emigrate from his homeland and went to the nearby kingdom of Chorasmia, where King Vishtaspa received him well, then he and his wife embraced Zoroastrianism and worked to spread it in his land.” Was the life of Zoroaster a source of inspiration for the Prophet of Islam in his life and actions?
The Last of the Prophets
The Prophet of Islam said about himself that he was the last of the prophets and messengers. Zoroaster said the same: “O people, I am God’s messenger to you… God sent me to guide you in the end of time… He wished to conclude this worldly life with me, so I came as a guide to the truth and to remove the impurities that had attached themselves to religion… I came as a bearer of glad tidings and a warner of this approaching end…” (36) Mani later repeated the same claim, saying he was the last of the prophets.
Monotheism
The Prophet of Islam called for monotheism and rejection of all false gods: “There is no god but Allah.” Zoroaster called for monotheism and rejection of all other gods: “There is no god but Ahura Mazda.”
The Names of God
The Prophet of Islam said that God has names, and a specific number of them. Zoroaster said the same before Muhammad. When Zoroaster asked to be taught this name, he was told it was “the requested secret.” The other names were: the first “Bestower of Blessings,” the second “the Mighty,” the third “the Perfect,” the fourth “the Holy,” (37) the fifth “the Noble,” the sixth “Wisdom,” the seventh “the Wise,” the eighth “Experience,” the ninth “the Knower,” the tenth “the Rich,” the eleventh “the Enricher,” the twelfth “the Lord,” the thirteenth “the Benefactor,” the fourteenth “the Good,” the fifteenth “the Compeller,” the sixteenth “the Upholder of Truth,” the seventeenth “Sight,” the eighteenth “the Healer,” the nineteenth “the Creator,” and the twentieth “Mazda” or the Knower of all things. (38)
The Night Journey (Isra’)
The Prophet of Islam said he was taken up to heaven. The same story is narrated in Zoroaster’s biography: “Then the angel took Zoroaster by the hand and ascended with him to heaven, where he stood in the presence of Ahura Mazda and the spiritual beings called Amesha Spenta; there he received from God the message he was to convey to his people and to all humanity.” (39) The pages of the Gathas record another instance of this belief—the belief in the ascent to heaven—lines stating that Zoroaster himself spoke of this event: “O people! I am God’s messenger to you… He speaks to me! He speaks to me with revelation through a messenger angel; He raised me to Him, the great angel led me to His presence… There, manifesting Himself, God appeared, taught me the law, and showed me the true religion, for He entrusted this book to you.” (40) We do not know, then, whether the story of the Prophet of Islam’s Night Journey and Ascension was merely a “dream” or a claim borrowed from similar ancient stories. It was certainly not a real event, even in the view of some Muslims (see Ibn Arabi’s commentary and Aisha’s statement: “The body of the Messenger of God was never missing”).
Some Acts of Worship
The Prophet of Islam imposed five daily prayers on Muslims: dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and night. In Zoroastrianism, which appeared before Islam: “Zoroaster called believers to five daily prayers performed at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and midnight.” (41)
In Manichaeism: “Prayer in Manichaeism is an obligation performed at fixed times with specific bodily movements of standing, bowing, and prostration… four prayers a day—the first at noon, the second in the afternoon, the third at sunset, and the fourth at night. Each prayer consists of twelve rak’ahs and a prostration… each rak’ah and prostration has a specific formula, recitation from the holy book in a particular manner, tone, and melody.” (42)
Muslims have a qibla: the Sacred Mosque. For the Zoroastrian and Manichaean worshipper, the qibla is the source of light—the sun or moon.
Muslims must perform ablution before prayer. The Zoroastrian does the same: “Prayer is preceded by ablution, which includes washing the face, hands, and feet.” (43) Manichaeans also precede prayer with ablution.
The Prophet of Islam imposed a thirty-day annual fast on Muslims. Mani imposed fasting on his followers: “Fasting in Manichaeism is an obligation of thirty days each year and seven days each month—the fast begins when the sun enters Aquarius and breaks at sunset.” (44)
Resurrection, the Bridge (Sirat), Reward and Punishment, and the Record of Deeds
The Quran elaborates extensively on eschatological matters: resurrection, judgment, reward, and punishment. We find these in Zoroastrianism: humans have another life besides this worldly one; the soul remains after death, then returns to reunite with its body… “Souls, after leaving bodies upon death, remain in the limbo of Menog awaiting the Day of Resurrection with longing, so they may reunite with their bodies raised from the earth.” (45)
Humans in this life have free choice between good and evil, and in the next life comes recompense. All human deeds are recorded: “Angels called ‘guardians’ are assigned to humans, recording their sins and good deeds in this ‘book’… Humans will find their actions and thoughts recorded—for and against them—in this book written by the guardian angels who record their deeds and thoughts.” (46)
Judgment is based on one’s deeds in the first life, good and evil: “After leaving the body, the soul appears before Mithra, judge of the other world (leader of the Ahuras who, with the Amesha Spenta, form the sacred heavenly host), who judges it for what it did in this world for the good of humanity and the world. Standing to Mithra’s right and left are his assistants Srasha and Rashnu, who weigh the deeds of the deceased on the scales of justice, placing good deeds in one pan and evil in the other. Here, no intercession comes from sacrifices, rituals, or formal worship—only good thoughts, words, and deeds. Whoever’s good outweighs goes to paradise; whoever’s evil outweighs goes to the abyss of hell.” (47)
Then comes the Sirat, the bridge the soul must cross over hell leading to paradise. It is wide for the good soul, which crosses in peace; narrow for the evil soul, which soon falls into hell: “The Sirat is stretched over the abyss of hell… an abyss whose floor is darkness from which flames burst, yet… though stretched over the abyss of hell, it also leads to the garden of abode—paradise!” (48) “After that, the soul proceeds to cross the Bridge of Destiny, a bridge that widens for the good soul, allowing it to walk leisurely to the other side toward the gate of paradise, but narrows for the evil soul, causing it to stumble and fall into the fire of hell.” (49)
The Awaited Mahdi
The belief in the awaited Mahdi is well-known in Islam. It appears in Tirmidhi and others: “…from Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, who said: The Messenger of God (peace be upon him) said: The Mahdi is from me, broad of forehead, aquiline of nose; he will fill the earth with equity and justice as it was filled with oppression and injustice; he will rule for seven years.” This is also mentioned in Zoroastrianism.
Al-Shahrastani in Al-Milal wa al-Nihal states: “Among what Zoroaster foretold in the book Zend Avesta: In the end of time a man named ‘Saoshyant’ will appear—meaning the knowledgeable man—who will adorn the world with religion and justice. Then in his time ‘Pityara’ will appear and cause affliction to his affairs and kingdom for twenty years. Then ‘Saoshyant’ will appear over the people of the world, revive justice, destroy oppression, restore altered traditions to their original state; kings will submit to him, matters will be facilitated, religion and truth will be aided, and in his time there will be security, comfort, cessation of strife, and removal of tribulations.” (50)
Corruption of the Gospel
The Prophet of Islam said the Jews and Christians corrupted their scriptures. Mani said the same about the Gospels: “Mani rejected recognition of the four Christian Gospels on the grounds that the apostles had corrupted them to serve Jewish interests.” (51)
The Crucifixion of Christ
The Quran denies the reality of Christ’s crucifixion, saying what happened was only an appearance: “it appeared to them so.” This is what Mani said: “Deacon Mansi al-Qummus explains this point in Manichaeism: Christ appeared among the Jews wearing the form and shadow (i.e., appearance) of a human body, not a real body… but the god of darkness incited the Jews to crucify him. Since he had no body, the sufferings did not affect him, but the Jews thought he was crucified.” (52)
6. Other Influences on Judaism and Christianity
The influence of Persian religion was not limited to Islam; Judaism, Christianity, and others were affected earlier.
Judaism
A Christian writer on the post-exilic period: “It should not surprise us to see Judaism after the exile influenced by Zoroastrianism… though the effects of this religion did not become apparent in Judaism until two centuries later. In this historical period, visionary writings appeared in Hebrew literature clearly bearing traces of Zoroastrian beliefs about heaven and hell, judgment after death, and the end of the world. The belief in angelic priesthood emerged, along with dualism of good and evil under two opposing powers, each with its leader—Archangel Michael for good and Satan for evil. Added to these was the idea of the messianic kingdom that will one day rule with righteousness.” (53)
Example: Satan. The Hebrews did not know Satan in his full form as the source of evil in the world until after the Babylonian exile and contact with other religions.
Al-Aqqad in Iblis: “Comparative religion shows that the belief isolates the power of evil and confines it to the ‘satanic personality’ the more it advances in exalting God and rejecting that evil could emanate from Him. Therefore, early Hebrews felt no need to isolate Satan or attribute evils to him, for they expected from God actions like those of Satan… The same act was sometimes attributed to Satan and sometimes to God, as in the census of the people in David’s time…” (54)
In Allah by the same author: “The Jews did not speak of ‘demons’ before the exile or before dwelling between the rivers; they spoke of Satan after likening him to Ahriman, who represents evil and corruption among the Magi.” (55)
Christianity
Christianity was also influenced by Persian religions, either directly through borrowing or indirectly through Judaism, which was itself influenced by Persian religion. Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, translator of Hymns of Zoroaster, on Zoroastrian influences in Judaism that prepared the way for Christ’s mission: “The development of beliefs in Palestine concerning theological vision, the kingdom of God, final judgment, resurrection, the Son of Man, the prince of this world or prince of darkness, the savior—these formed fertile soil capable of receiving and interpreting the message of life, the Word, and the death of Jesus.” (56)
Example: Satan’s temptation of Christ. The first three Gospels mention the story that Satan put Christ through trial and tried to instill doubt in him… “Then the devil took him to a very high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the world and their glory, and said to him: ‘All this I will give you if you fall down and worship me.’ Jesus said: ‘Get away, Satan! For it is written: You shall worship the Lord your God and Him alone shall you serve.’” (Matthew 4:8-10)
The same legend appears in Zoroaster’s biography: “When he came of age, Satan came to tempt him and placed in his hand dominion over all the earth in exchange for abandoning his future mission, but Zoroaster rebuked him and drove him away.” (57)
7. The Confusion of the Prophet of Islam Regarding the Magi
It is well known in Islam that “People of the Book” refers to Jews and Christians, while no text explicitly includes the Magi as People of the Book. Yet the Prophet of Islam seems tof have been confused about this issue. He was heavily influenced by and borrowed from Persian religion, yet he also found elements that contradicted his doctrine and were not present in the scriptures he considered revealed. The Prophet of Islam took much from Persian religion and rejected other parts. The result was a middle-ground solution that is astonishing and contradictory: not explicitly recognizing them as People of the Book but treating them as such!
The Prophet of Islam did not explain why they should be treated as People of the Book when they are not. The only answer is a kind of gratitude for what he took from their religion—and it was considerable. Two issues, I believe, made the Prophet of Islam hesitate to recognize the Persians as People of the Book:
- The struggle between good and evil in the world, the cornerstone of Persian religion. The Prophet of Islam rejected it and did not accept it as an explanation for the existence of evil—an idea deeply rooted in Persian religion that cannot be dismissed by claiming the Persians corrupted their faith.
- The separation of Persian prophets—Zoroaster and Mani—from the chain of Hebrew prophets.
This ambiguity and confusion persisted after him.
First: The status of the Magi during the Prophet’s lifetime. In Sahih al-Bukhari: “…from Ali ibn Abdullah… Sufyan said: I heard Amr say: I was sitting with Jabir ibn Zayd and Amr ibn Aws when Bijalah told them in the year 70, during Mus’ab ibn al-Zubayr’s pilgrimage with the people of Basra near the Maqam of Zamzam: I was scribe to Jaz’ ibn Mu’awiya, uncle of al-Ahnaf… A letter came from Umar ibn al-Khattab a year before his death: Separate every pair of Magi related by marriage. Umar had not taken jizya from the Magi until Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf testified that the Messenger of God (peace be upon him) took it from the Magi of Hajar.”
In Muwatta: “From Ja’far ibn Muhammad from his father: Umar said: I do not know what to do with the Magi. Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf said: I bear witness that I heard the Messenger of God (peace be upon him) say: Treat them as you treat the People of the Book.”
Second: Confusion persisted after the Prophet. Even Umar, a major companion, did not know how to treat the Magi—an extension of the Prophet’s own ambiguity and vague position. Later jurists also differed on marriage to Magian women; most forbid it, some permit it.
“Abu Thawr permitted marriage to Magian women because they pay jizya like Jews and Christians.” (58)
Historical books mention Hudhayfa marrying a Magian woman, though reports vary.
Al-Shahrastani falls into the same confusion and finds no solution but to follow the Prophet’s middle path, classifying the Magi under “those who have a semblance of scripture”!
8. Conclusion
Islam was clearly influenced by Persian religions. We find strong similarities in many doctrines; some are nearly identical, especially eschatological matters—resurrection, raising, judgment, reward, punishment, and the Sirat. The Persian spirit is clearly evident in many beliefs. Zoroastrianism even surpasses Islam in clarity and logic in some doctrines that appear similar, such as free will.
While Zoroastrianism clearly affirms human free will and thus responsibility for actions, Islam lacks clarity and shows obvious contradiction. Some Quranic verses indicate humans freely choose their actions; others state that God has decreed matters and nothing escapes His will—everything that happens is execution of the divine will to which humans have no alternative.
Without delving into details, here are some contradictory verses denying human free choice: “Indeed, those who disbelieve—it is all the same for them whether you warn them or do not warn them—they will not believe. Allah has set a seal upon their hearts and upon their hearing, and over their vision is a veil. And for them is a great punishment.” (Al-Baqarah 2:6-7)
“And whomever Allah wills to guide, He opens his breast to Islam; and whomever He wills to send astray, He makes his breast tight and constricted as though he were climbing into the sky. Thus does Allah place defilement upon those who do not believe.” (Al-An’am 6:125)
“And if Allah had willed, He could have made you one nation, but He sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills. And you will surely be questioned about what you used to do.” (Al-Nahl 16:93)
“Whoever Allah guides is the guided one; and whoever He leaves astray—for them you will find no protector to guide them.” (Al-Kahf 18:17)
This contradiction caused major disputes in early Islamic centuries and led to the emergence of different sects.
Another distinction of Zoroaster is the complete absence of violence in his mission, unlike Islam. Zoroaster did not take up the sword—how could one whose mission was goodness and its support wield the sword? This contrasts with Islam’s policy of the sword; all Islamic history is stained with blood, battles, and war. While Islam’s direction toward violence impacted later history, Zoroaster’s influence on his followers is evident among the Parsis: “They are a people of lofty morals and refined manners, a living witness to the merit of Zoroastrian religion and its great effect in refining and civilizing humanity.” (59)
Even in Paradise: Discrimination Between Men and Women
“The righteous… in gardens and springs… Thus We will marry them to fair women with large, beautiful eyes.” (Al-Dukhan 44:51-54)
But who are these houris? How many for each believing Muslim? “Fair ones reserved in pavilions… whom no man or jinn has touched before them… So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny?” (Al-Rahman 55:72-75)
“We have created them of special creation (God created them without birth for the pleasure of the believing Muslim) and made them virgins (they return as virgins after the believing Muslim enters them).” (Al-Waqi’ah 56:35-38)
From Abu Sa’id al-Khudri: The Messenger of God (peace be upon him) said: “When the people of Paradise have intercourse with their women, they return as virgins.” (Narrated by Tabarani, Bazzar, Suyuti, Ibn Kathir, and Ibn Qayyim.)
“Those who believed in Our signs and were Muslims—enter Paradise, you and your spouses, delighted… Therein is whatever souls desire.” (Al-Zukhruf 43:69-71)
From the above, the believing Muslim man has wives in Paradise from these virgins created by God for his pleasure, untouched by man or jinn before him. But the paradise of chaste women differs from the paradise of obedience where Adam and Eve lived before disobeying God and their private parts became visible.
“Then Satan whispered to them to expose what was concealed from them of their private parts… He led them on with delusion. And when they tasted of the tree, their private parts became apparent to them…” (Al-A’raf 7:20-27; Ta-Ha 20:120-121)
Adam and Eve lived in obedience to God and did not see their private parts, but after obeying Satan and disobeying God’s command, their private parts appeared. This was Satan’s goal. God then warned the children of Adam against that satanic aim and urged them to righteousness. If this was the state of Adam and Eve in God’s paradise—unaware of their private parts in obedience to God but aware after obeying Satan—how can God contradict Himself and permit all those virgin women?
Leaving that aside, if the believing Muslim’s reward in Paradise is this open number of virgin women, what is the reward of the believing Muslim woman in that Paradise? Does she have an open number of men? Did God create for her husbands like the houris created for men? Were these virgins incentives for Arab fighters to fight fiercely and sacrifice their lives to win in Paradise women who return as virgins after intercourse? What is the woman’s share? The Quran never mentions any pleasure for women. This is the woman’s status and lot in the Quran in this world and the next—and much more. Though Muhammad’s hadiths provide many details, here we rely only on the Quran. The subject of women in Islam would fill volumes.
Sources
- Pre-formation: Through the arrival of Persian religion to the Arabian Peninsula, the Prophet of Islam’s acquaintance with it, and his influence by it. Post-formation: Through Persian influences in the emergence of Shi’ism, Sufism, the call for socialism by Abu Dharr, some Mu’tazilite opinions, and other matters. Some also see a Persian influence “during formation” through the role assumed for Salman the Persian with the Prophet of Islam.
- “Allah” by Abbas al-Aqqad, p. 81, Dar al-Hilal, 1954.
- “Ancient Persian Literature” by Paul Horn, translated by Dr. Hussein Mujeeb al-Masri, p. 102, Anglo Library, 1982. (Quotation from a translator’s footnote).
- “The Story of Civilization” by Will Durant, Vol. 2, p. 425, Egyptian General Book Authority, 2001.
- “Mithra” in the original text.
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran” by Abkar al-Saqaf, pp. 248–249, New Ages Edition, 2000.
- Researcher Firas al-Sawah is cited in a study titled “The Birth of Satan: Zoroaster, Prophet of Monotheism, Prophet of Dualism,” providing three probable dates for Zoroaster’s birth…
- In a later stage after Zoroaster, “Ahura Mazda” became the god of good, and “Ahriman” the god of evil, marking a transition from monotheism to dualism.
- “Hymns of Zoroaster,” translation of the Gathas, prepared and translated by Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, Arabic translation by Dr. Philip Atiyah, Gatha 51, p. 145, Egyptian General Book Authority, 1993.
- “Dawn of Islam” by Ahmad Amin, p. 162, Egyptian General Book Authority, 1996.
- “Heresy in the West” by Dr. Ramses Awad, p. 53, Sina Publishing, 1997.
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 314.
- “Al-Milal wa al-Nihal” by al-Shahrastani, Vol. 1, p. 244, Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi Edition, 1976.
- “Dawn of Islam,” p. 171.
- “Religions of the World” by Habib Said, p. 157, Episcopal Church Publishing House, Cairo (no date).
- “Ancient Persian Literature,” p. 95. (Quotation from a translator’s footnote).
- “Heresy in the West,” pp. 52, 54.
- Mani authored many books and treatises… (detailed description of Mani’s works, including “Shabuhragan,” “Living Gospel,” etc.), from “Iran in the Sasanian Era” by Arthur Christensen, translated by Dr. Yahya al-Khashab, pp. 187–188, 192, 195, Egyptian General Book Authority, 1998.
- “Dawn of Islam,” p. 30.
- Ibid., p. 31.
- Ibid., p. 32.
- Ibid., p. 32.
- Captive at Badr; the Prophet of Islam ordered his execution.
- “Dawn of Islam,” p. 107.
- “From the History of Atheism in Islam” by Dr. Abd al-Rahman Badawi, p. 24, Egyptian Renaissance Library, 1945.
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 323.
- “Dawn of Islam,” pp. 167–169.
- “From the History of Atheism in Islam,” pp. 28–29.
- “Religion in the Arabian Peninsula” by Abkar al-Saqaf, pp. 64, 69, New Ages Edition, 2000.
- Ibid., pp. 69–70.
- In Ibn Hisham’s Sirah: Some scholars narrated…
- “Restless Figures in Islam” by Dr. Abd al-Rahman Badawi, pp. 32–33, Egyptian Renaissance Library, 1946.
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 318.
- “Dawn of Islam,” p. 155.
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 293.
- Ibid., p. 291.
- As it appeared in the text; likely intended “al-Quddus” (the Holy).
- “Allah,” p. 82.
- “The Birth of Satan” (previously referenced study).
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 292.
- “The Birth of Satan.”
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 315.
- “The Birth of Satan.”
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” pp. 314–315.
- “The Birth of Satan.”
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” p. 285.
- “The Birth of Satan.”
- “Religion in India, China, and Iran,” pp. 287–288.
- “The Birth of Satan.”
- “Al-Milal wa al-Nihal,” Vol. 1, p. 239.
- “Heresy in the West,” p. 54.
- Ibid., p. 55.
- “Religions of the World,” pp. ۱۶۰–۱۶۱.
- “Iblis” by Abbas al-Aqqad, p. 103, Hilal Book Series, 1958.
- “Allah,” p. 78.
- “Hymns of Zoroaster,” p. 8.
- “The Birth of Satan.” (Footnote on parallels in Buddhist and Christian literature also provided.)
- “Fiqh al-Sunnah” by al-Sayyid Sabiq, Vol. 2, p. 93, Muslim Library, 1983.
- “The Story of Civilization,” p. 437.
